Oman and Zanzibar Virtual Museum

Arab names: Makhnak  (choker ) / lu'lu'a al-raqba (pearl of the neck)

Period: 1850-1950

Origin: Oman (Usually worn by women from Ad Dakhiliyah and Adh Dhahirah (interior and western Oman)

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 82 en p 83
2. Avelyn Forster Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 p 42 figure 24
3. Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 42 figure 24
4. The Wereld Museum in Rotterdam has a similar necklace. h 24 x br 13 x d 3,2 cm Gewicht: 193 gr. Inventory 77068. Ex collection Smith / Hutschenruyter. De grote centrale kraal is altijd gemaakt van goud of van messing (nooit van zilver), en de gekleurde kralen eromheen waren gemaakt van hout, glas en kraal. De middelste kraal van deze ketting is gemaakt van was waaromheen bladgoud is gelegd. Zie: Forster, Avelyn ; Disappearing treasures of Oman ; Clevedon, Archway Books ; 1998 ; p. 42. Volgens Morris is de middelste kraal, die lu'lu (parel), al-busra (onrijpe dadel) of joza al-halq (Adam's appel) wordt genoemd, gemaakt van geneden hout of hars.
5. Leurquin, Anne ; A world of necklaces. Africa, Asia, Oceania, America from the Ghysels Collection ; Milaan: Skira ; 2003 ; p. 180 ; p. 428.
6. Ethnic jewellery from Africa, Asia and Pacific Islands. The René van der Star Collection ; Amsterdam/Singapore; Pepin Press ; 2002 ; p. 62 (onder).
7. British Museum has a similar item 2009,6023.188 Length: 41.5 centimetres (end-to-end)Weight: 185 grammes. Silver choker necklace (makhnaq, 'choker', or lu'lu'a al-raqba, 'pearl of the neck') with a large central gold bead. The bead is made of a thin sheet of gold that is filled with resin in order to keep its shape. The ovoid bead is decorated with a raised central band decorated with a zig-zag pattern (originally lozenge shaped but reduced to a zig-zag pattern due to wear) and it is flanked by two smaller gilded beads with a similar raised pattern. The central bead is sometimes referred to as a lu'lu'a (pearl) or in Rustaq as al-busra (unripe date) The golden beads are flanked by shiny red resin beads and are threaded through a straight silver rod ending in twisted loops. Two elaborately worked wide, flat silver chains made from an intricate triangular pattern of silver balls and braided strands of silver wire, are hooked from the loops. An inverted heart-shaped clasp is linked to each end of the chains. The cord used to tie the choker around the neck is missing. Usually worn by women from Ad Dakhiliyah and Adh Dhahirah (interior and western Oman).

Arab names: Manthura / Manthurah

Period: Around 1900

Origin: Oman Rustaq ( worn by women in Northern Oman and the Bedouin women of the Wahiba)

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 86 bottom  p 87
2. Avelyn Forster Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 p 43 figure 25
3. Richardson & Dorr The craft heritage of Oman p 44 and 441 item 039
4. Catalog of the Oman exhibition in the Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam 2009 page 143
5. Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 43; 
6. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 p8 
7. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p 77
8. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p 59

Arab names: Manthura  / Manthurah

Period: Around 1900

Origin: Oman Rustaq ( worn by women in Northern Oman and the Bedouin women of the Wahiba)

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 86 bottom  p 87 p 173
2. Avelyn Forster Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 p 43 figure 25
3. Richardson & Dorr The craft heritage of Oman p 44 and 441 item 039
4. Catalog of the Oman exhibition in the Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam 2009 page 143
5.  Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 43
6. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 p 8
7. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz  p 77
8. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p59

Arab names: Manthura  / Manthurah

Period: around 1900

Origin: Oman Rustaq  (worn by women in Northern Oman and the Bedouin women of the Wahiba)

1. Oman Adorned Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 86 Bottom p 87 p 173
2. Avelyn Forster Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 p 43 figure 25
3. Richardson & Dorr The craft heritage of Oman p 44 and 441 item 039
4. Catalog of the Oman exhibition in the Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam 2009 page 143
5. Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 43
6. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 p 8
7. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p77
8. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p 59
9. Wereld Museum Rotterdam has a similar necklace in their collection: h 47 x br 40 x d 4,5 cm gewicht: 1253 gr. Ex collection Smith/Hutschenruyter. Inventory number 77024

Arab names: Malketeh (in Dhoar sometimes also called a Manthura necklace)

Period: 1900-1950

Origin: Oman Dhofar desert areas

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond Miranda Morris / Apex London 1997 p 261 Bottom
2. Jehan S Rajab Silver Jewelery of Oman p 65
3. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz  p76
4. Arab & Islamic Silver by Saad Al-Jadir 1981   Stacey International  p 100 (bottom)
5. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p56
6. Oman Faces and Places page 133
7. PDO News No 4/1992 Picture of necklace on the front cover  with an omani antique dealer, nicknamed the "catman" as he looked after many street cats in the souq.
8. Oman Faces and places, articles from PDO News magazine 2009 page 133
9. Volkerenkundig Museum Leiden Inventory 5715-2328

Arab names: Makhnak / Makhnaq (pearl of the neck) / Makhinak

Period: 1850-1930

Origin: Oman

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 82 en p 83
2. Richardson & Dorr The craft heritage of Oman p 44 and 442 item 043  Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p 80
3. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p 62
4. Oman Faces and Places page 134
5. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman by Jean Greffioz 2009 (privately published) page 78 fig 4.53 has photo with a similar item. p203

Arab names: Makhnak / Makhnaq  (pearl of the neck) / Makhinak

Period:1900-1960

Origin:  Oman: Dhahirah region and the interior

1. Oman Adorned Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 82 en p 83 
2. Richardson & Dorr The craft heritage of Oman p 44 and 442 item 043 Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p80
3. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p 62
4. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman by Jean Greffioz 2009 (privately published) page 80 fig 4.56 has photo with a similar item.

Arab name: Hanesheh Necklace

Period: 1850-1930

Origin: Oman Dhofar

References:

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 256, 264-268; 315 bottom

Arab name: Sumt / Samt

Period: 1900-1950

Origin: Oman

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton Robert Richmond Miranda Morris Apex London 1997 p 173
2. Richardson & Dorr The craft heritage of Oman Vol 2 page 442 / 443 items 045, 049 and 050
3. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 p21
4. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz pages 70, 71,
5. Arab & Islamic Silver by Saad Al-Jadir 1981  Stacey International p 107
6. Islamic Art in Oman page 350
7. British Museum has a similar pendant: 2009,6023.239 Length: 47 centimetres; Diameter: 9.7 centimetre (central medallion) Weight: 342 grammes Silver necklace with a large central disc (samt) made of hammered and engraved silver, 13 barrel-shaped granulated beads and six Maria Theresa Thalers, strung on a purple thickly plaited yarn.The central disc is engraved with concentric circles, a central starburst with granulated decoration, small triangles and a dense background of cross-hatched lines. The design is accentuated with the addition of niello (lead sulphide, Arabic takhil), a black molten mixture that is rubbed into the engraved lines, and with gold leaf applied on the starburst and on the barrel-shaped bead affixed to the disc. This type of necklace is referred to as a 'disc with kohl' (samt or sumt mukahhal) or 'coins with kohl' (qirsh mukahhal, referring to the Thalers), and was traditionally made by silversmiths from Oman's Interior towns, such as Nizwa, Bahla and Rustaq. The coin pendants are worn with the Empress's face (the obverse) against the wearer's body
8. 2016 Illuminated Qurans from Oman by Heinz Gaube and Abulrahman al Salimi, Vol 8 of the series on Ibadism and Oman  Published by Georg Olms  221 pages and many colour illustrations. Page 19

Arab name: Tok

Period: 1850-1950

Origin: Throughout Oman

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997  p 7 9  bottom
2. Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 49 fig 37
3. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz  p 66

Arab name: Tok / Tuq

Period: 1900-1950

Origin: Oman Dhofar but with strong Indian influences.

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 7 9 bottom
2. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 p 17 and front-cover 
3. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p66
4. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p 64

Arab name: Suri Marriya necklace

Period: 1900-1970

Origin: Oman Sur region

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 page 127 (see photo on that page)
2. Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 48
3. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p 47 photo 4.4

Arab name: Marriya

Period: 1850-1950

Origin: Oman Batinah region (Baluchi influences)

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 89
2. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz  p 19

Arab name: Manjad

Period: 1900-1950

Origin: Oman Dhofar

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 263 (photo F left) / 264 (photo bottom left)
2. Disappearing treasures of Oman Avelyn Forster figure 89 page 93
3. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 page 35
4. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p143
5. Islamic Art in Oman page 344

Arab names: Shakka  Alta

Period: 1850-1950

Condition: Oman Rustaq

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 page 169, p 81  middle  and bottom
2. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p 46
3. Catalog of the Oman exhibition in the Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam 2009 page 136 (chain used in combination with a Koran-box, but without the kharza beads)

Arab Names: Digg  / Duqq (neckalce) / Hirz qafa (three tiered hirz) / Hirz dafar

Period: 1850-1950

Origin: Bedouin of central Oman

This necklace was only worn by Bedouin women in central Oman. In more modern examples of this necklace the coral beads have been replaced by pink ceramic beads.

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 98-99 middle & bottom
2. Richardson & Dorr The craft and Heritage of Oman vol 2 page 443 item 051 (Duqq) and page 441 item 036 (hirz qafa)
3. Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 41
4. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 p18 , p19, p48; ; Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p 78 / 79
5. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands The René van der Star Collection  2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p 62
6. (Hirz) British Museum on-line collection number 2009.6023.171
7. (Digg) British Museum on-line collection number 2009.6023.212
8. Catalogue of the Oman exhibition in the Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam 2009 page 139
9. PDO News No 4/1992 Oman silver Jewelry by Rebecca Brickson page 37
10. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman by Jean Greffioz 2009 (privately published) page 25 fig 2.12 and page 79 has photo with a similar necklace. 
11. Wereld Museum Rotterdam has a similar necklace. l 87 x br 5 x d 3 cm. Inventory 75257. That necklace was published in the exhibition catalogue De Kracht van Zilver, etnische sieraden uit de collectie Smith-Hutschenruyter, Mols. L. e.a., Mercatorfonds Brussel & Wereldmuseum Rotterdam, 2011, p. 112, afb. 20
12. British Museum has similar Hirz 2009,6023.171; Length: 33 centimetres; Height: 5 centimetres (Qur'an case) Width: 9 centimetres (Qur'an case) Weight: 213 grammesThree-tiered silver head-dress ornament (called hamhoon or hirz qafa, lit. 'hirz for the back') The top tier is triangular in shape, followed by a rectangular second tier that is suspended from five sets of chains (one set is missing) The bottom tier suspended from six sets of chains is a large rectangular Qur'an case (hirz) which is further embellished by 17 danglers made of plain square pendants hanging from short chains. The tiers are decorated with delicately stamped gold leaf strips with floral and leaf patterns and framed by silver dots. The Qur'an case is sealed shut. This ornament was worn attached to a headdress, or attached with wool to a woman's hair plaits, from the back of the head or suspended from a necklace (marriyah) to fall down a woman's back. These types of head ornaments were used on special occasions and often formed part of a bride's wedding jewellery. They are usually associated with the women of the Sharqiyah region from Sur.

Arab name: Shubqah / Shibgat

1. Oman Adorned by Pauline Shelton  Robert Richmond / Apex London 1997 p 173
2. Richardson & Dorr The craft heritage of Oman p 442  item 042 Disappearing treasures of Oman 1998 by Avelyn Foster p 44
3. Silver jewellery of Oman by Jehan S Rajab 1997 p 37 
4. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman 2009 by Jean Greffioz p 81
5. Ethnic Jewellery from Africa, Asia and the Pacific Islands 2002 Amsterdam Pepin Press p 48, page 58
6. Islamic Art in Oman page 343
7. Traditional silver jewelry and handicrafts from Oman by Jean Greffioz 2009 (privately published) page 81 fig 4.57 has photo with a similar item.
8. Western Arabia in the Leiden Collections Traces of a colourful Past, by Luitgard Mols Arnoud Vrolijk, Leiden Publications 2016 page 169

Name: Coral Bead

Period:1900 1950

Origin: Zanzibar or Asia (Tibet China)

Coral beads in Omani jewellery has often, already decades ago,  been replaced by cheap ceramic or glass beads. These modern replacements are often much more symmetrical. Omani jewellery examples with genuine coral tends to be older than the ones with fake coal.

The chain is made of amber from Birma, this is called Birmite.  When held against the light you can see with a magnifying glass many small cracks (a feature of Birmite). Again when we hold a bead against the light or using flash photography the beads look more reddish (cherry colour) The colour of Birmite is influenced by temperature, humity, air and age. These beads are probably over 200 years old.  Birmite mines were closed between 1936 and 1999, when they reopened again. In Asia and in partiuclar in China there has been a lot of interest in in Birmate. 

 Notice the small internal cracks in all the amber (birmite) prayer beads

In Islam, prayer beads are referred to as Misbaha (Arabic: مسبحة mas'baha ), Tasbih or Sibha and contain 99 beads, corresponding to the Names of God in Islam. Sometimes only 33 beads are used, in which case one would cycle through them three times. The beads are traditionally used to keep count while saying the prayer known as the "Tasbih of Fatimah", which was a form of prayer offered as a gift by Muhammad to his daughter, which is recited as follows: 33 times "Subhan Allah" (Glory be to God), 33 times "Al-hamdu lilah" (Praise be to God), and 33 times "Allahu Akbar" (God is the greatest) which equals 99, the number of beads in the misbaha. It is highly recommended to recite this prayer after the daily five ritual prayers.
Use of the misbaha to count prayers and recitations is considered an acceptable practice within mainstream Islam.While they are widely used today in Sunni and Shia Islam, adherents of the Ahmadiyya and Salafi sects shun them as an intolerable innovation. According to Mirza Tahir Ahmad of the ahmadiyya community, the use of prayers beads is a form of innovation which was not practised by the early Muslim community. Antique prayer-bead chains made of Birmite are very collectible and valuable.

The finials that were not included in the necklace, but kept separate.

1. Wikipedia
2. The History of beads by Lois Sherr Dubin (bead 906 on the beadchart after page 112)
3. Feedback British Museum (Jill Cook) The ideal environment  for amber is around 18 Celsius and 55% humidity. The heat prevalent in the climate of Muscat and high temperature differences between day and night may have may have played a role in the crazing on the surface of the beads. Crazing is a network of fine cracks on the surface of a material. (however we did not find this effect on some other old amber beads purchased in Oman)

Smallest bead 1 x 1 mm and the largest bead is 6 by 7 mm. Length of the chain is 55 cm.

The British Museum has almost identical small glass beads from Zanzibar. These ancient beads were found in Zanzibar / Pemba during the the early 1900's and donated to the British Museum.  The British Museum identifies the origin of most of the glass beads as probably being from Persia (Iran) See the slide-show for comparable beads in the BM. The book by F.B. Pearce (see below) gives more details about the beads that could be found around Zanzibar during the early 1900's.It should be noted that before the arrival of the Portuguese the trade with Arabia was run by the Kingdom of Hormuz (1000-1500). This kingdom was run by Persians  (Shirazzi?) en Omani Arabs.

A recent scientific study (ref 2) by Marilee Wood etc. Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence concludes that some of the glass beads found on Zanzibar Island (Unguja Ukuu and Fukuchani) are several thousand years old, while  others are from a later period but also many centuries old. Many beads may originate from South and South-East Asia. Glass Beads were not  completely made in Zanzibar however evidence was found that glass tubes were imported and locally converted into beads. See also the Slide-show for a photo of these beads (copied from this paper) Our beads look very similar but not sure they are also that old.

F.B. Pearce writes in 1919 (ref 1) : "Besides Carnelian beads , pierced amethysts and garnets  and great quantities of glass beads are also found at certain states of the tide at the ruined towns in Pemba. They are generally considered to be of Arabian or Persian manufacture, and date from the twelfth to the fifteenth century; although some specimens may be considerably older and date from the Ptolemaic period. The most common bead  found at Ndagoni is a large, irregularly shaped bluish-green glass bead of a distinctive character. After heavy rain they may be picked up by hundreds. That they are of somewhat archaic manufacture is evident from the irregularity of their shape ans size. Many appear to have become distorted in the process of being made.  The question is often asked how the existence of such quantities of beads in the sea-sands of Pemba can be accounted for:

1) That they formed part of a cargo of a wrecked ancient ship

2) That they have been washed out of ancient graves by the encroaching sea.

3) That they are the remains of some propitiatory or thank -offering made by the former inhabitants of the ruins, to the sea

4) that a bead factory factory or depot existed at the towns where beads are now found and that the encroaching sea has liberated the beads.

The fourth explanation seems the most probable . It is worth noting that at Mogishu in Italian Somali-land one of the oldest Persian or Arab settlements on the coast, complete apparatus for the manufacture of glass beads, glass stems, and coloured beads has been found (see Justus Strandes Die Portugiesenzeit von Deutsch und English Ostafrika). If a glass-bead manufacture existed at Mogdishu there is no reason why similar establishments should not have been erected elsewhere in the region" e.g. page

The necklace section contains a long chain with antique silver, wooden and  ancient glass beads. 

1. Zanzibar the Island metropolis of Eastern Africa by F.B. Pearce, Barnes & Noble 1919 page 355
2. Zanzibar and Indian Ocean trade in the first millennium CE: the glass bead evidence by Marilee Wood,  Panighello, S etc. published in Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences 20 Jan 2016; Archaeol Anthropol Sci (2016). doi:10.1007/s12520-015-0310-z
3. British Museum Af1922,0307.4.a-w (identical yellow glass beads) Sizes 0,2-0,8 cm Probably made in Iran. Donated by Miss Le Neven Foster in 1922 Found in Zanzibar.
4. British Museum Af1959,21.27.a-e (identical red glass beads) Sizes  0,1-0,6 cm  Donated by J.H. Vaughan 1959  Zanzibar Pemba.  Findspot: Mtambwe Mkuu, "From shore near high water mark"
5. British Museum Af1922,0307.1.a-cr (96 identical red glass beads) Sizes 0,1-0,5 cm Origin Persia (Iran) Donated by Miss Le Neven Foster in 1922 Found in Zanzibar
6. British Museum Af1959,21.39.a-d (similar green glass beads) Donated by J.H. Vaughan 1959  Ndogoni, Pemba Is. ZANZIBAR "from shore near ruins" (?)
7. British Museum Af1959,21.12.a-c. Similar blue/green glass beads Size 0,2-0,6 cm Excavated/Findspot: Mtambwe Mkuu NDOGONY Pemba Zanzibar, "From shore near high water mark" Donated by J.H. Vaughan 1959  
8. British Museum Af1935,1015.2 String of similar glass beads in various colours. Found in Zanzibar. Donated by : McElderry 1935.
9. A Handbook on Beads by WGN Sleen, Libraire Halbart Liege 1973 Contains section on  beads from Coastal East Africa / Zanzibar page 76- 91 and several references in the rest of the book.
10. The History of beads by Lois Sherr Dubin, Harry Abrams New York 1995 page 67 contains information on Trade-wind-beads page 67 Tradewind beads of brick red, yellow, green and black opaque glass, probably dating to the fifteenth century A.D. These distinctive beads were made in India by a drawn glass technique. Many similar beads were exported . beginning in 200 BC and continuing up to the seventeenth century. They are labeled trade wind beads because they are found in  archaeological  sites by the Indian Ocean in East and South Africa  and are believed to have arrived there in the ships of Arab, Indian and Chinese traders who sailed with the monsoon winds and ocean currents. The beads are also found throughout South-east Asia, including Thailand , Java, Malaysia and Sumatra. Of particular interest are the brick red beads known as "Indian reds" in Africa and as Mutisalah in Timor. The beads shown in the photo on page 67 belonged to the Corning museum of glass and the origin of the beads was determined in 1957 by Mr. WGN van der Sleen based a comparison of similar 15th century beads excavated in Brahmapuri.