Oman and Zanzibar Virtual Museum

Muscat History

Muscat is enclosed by mountains on the land side. In fact the bay of Muscat extends only a few hundred meters inland. The harbor itself is also partly enclosed with rocks, hence people referred to it as the hidden harbor. This in combination with the favorable water depths made it an ideal natural harbor.  It is not surprising that when the Portuguese conquered Muscat in 1507 it was already a very important trading center. Archaeological evidence close to Muscat  shows that already  thousands of years ago there was "international"  trade with the "Indus valley civilization"  one of the earliest civilizations on earth. In fact the famous classic Greek geographer  Ptolemy mentions a "hidden harbor" in Arabia Felix , which is probably  Muscat. The Greek and Romans imported incense from Arabia Felix. A voyage to Arabia Felix is described in the ancient book "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea"

During the first quarter of the 16th century the Portuguese build forts on both sides of the bay. In 1650  the Omani (Ya´ariba) took over control from  the Portuguese. As a consequence of struggle between different Omani tribes the Persians gained control of Muscat. Saif bin Sultan II  (Ya´ariba) appealed in 1742 / 1743 to the Persians for military help which resulted in the Persians under Nadir Shah taking over most of the country. Ahmad bin Said Al Busaidi, was the governor of Sohar when a Persian fleet attacked the town. He held out for nine months, finally forcing the Persian commander of Nader Shah's army to come to terms and leave the country altogether within a few years. He was elected imam in 1744, marking the last time Oman was occupied by foreign parties and the beginning of a new unified state. It was also the start of a dynasty that has lasted to the present day, making it one of the oldest surviving royal dynasties in Arabia.

References: 

1. Max von Oppenheim in his book vom Mittelmeer zum Perzischen Golf band II after  page 332

Photographer: Photo taken by  members of the British RAF 211 squadron  based in Iraq around 1938. Size 20,3 by 15,2 cm.

Dating based on an inscription on the back of one of the photographs

Muscat in the 19th century

Magnificent view of Muscat with on the left Fort Jalali and on the right the old Bayt Al Alam palace of the Sultan of Oman.The palace was build in the early eighteen-hundreds by Said bin Sultan, the sultan of Oman and Zanzibar. The Al Alam palace was replaced in 1972 by a modern ceremonial palace by Sultan Qaboos the current Sultan of Oman. Note the double wing plane on the top right!

During the middle of the 19th century Muscat harbor was visited on a daily basis by a whale.  The American Joseph Osgood writes: " No visitor to the harbor is better welcomed by the natives than ´Muscat Tom´ This name has been given by sailors to a male fin-back whale which has made a habitual practice for over forty years to enter and frolic about the cove several hours in each day, always leaving before night. Sometimes a smaller member of his tribe supposed to be a female , accompanies him. His length may not be less than seventy feet and that of his companion fifty feet. Since his arrival signalises the departure of the sharks which invest the waters of the harbor to the prevention of sea-bathing by the natives, the most strenuous caution is observed not to interfere with his pursuits and diversions.   He shows no fear of such vessels as trespass upon his watery field. One day as he came rolling leisurely and jollily along side of a vessel at anchor in the harbor, and on board of which I was, once of the crew threw with considerable impetus a stick of wood into his open mouth as he raised his huge head out of the water. This breach of good treatment which he had been wont to receive did not draw any sign of displeasure from his whaleship, although more than one malediction was bestowed upon the imprudent tar by exasperated natives who had observed his censurable conduct"

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007 photo 72;
2. Muscat gate Museum memoirs of history p 35,36
3. Muscat gate Museum, memoirs of history page 35,36 shows situation around 1950 ; page 32-33 shows the location of the different population quarters in Muscat including Al Bu Said, Al-´Awr, Mughub, Al-Baharinah, Banyan (Hindu), Al-Waljat and Al- Madbaghah.
4. Joseph B.F. Osgood Notes of Travel or recollections of Majunga, Zanzibar, Muscat, Aden, Mocha and other Eastern ports Salem 1854 page 76-77
5. The RAF museum website, also contains interesting information regarding activities of the RAF in Oman:  https://www.rafmuseum.org.uk/research/online-exhibitions/an-enduring-relationship-a-history-of-frienship-between-the-royal-air-force-and-the-royal-air-force-of-oman/royal-air-force-operations-in-oman.aspx

Muscat around 1900

1. Cradle of Islam by S.M Zwemer the  : New York 1900
2. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brilll Leiden 2007 photo 69, 70
3. Muscat gate Museum, memoirs of history p 88 situation 1900; page 32-33 Showing the location of the different population groups living in Muscat  
4. Vom Mittelmeer zum Perzischen Golf band II by Max von Oppenheim  page 329   Large photo of  situation 1898
5. Travels in Arabia by Wellsted 1838 John Murray page 21

Detail of the above photo: The old Bayt al Alam palace, the main palace of the Sultan of Oman in Muscat

Muscat Panorama in 1900

The original photo (1900 or earlier) with the panorama of  Muscat harbor is of very high resolution: when we magnify the photo to well over a meter it is still sharp. See the slide-show for some details (real details are better than on our website) The photo slide-show also contains a photo by von Oppenheim (see ref 7) of the side of the Bayt al Alam palace Harem.

From Left to right we see:

1. Al-Jalali Fort
2. British consulate compound
3. House of Masjid Hamnadbin Muhammad
4. Customs House
5. Harem of Bayt Al Alam  (sultan´s palace)
6. Rest of Bayt al Alam
7. Bayt al Barza
8. Start of the hill that has fort Al Mirani on top (not visible)

Most Omani are Ibadhi moslims who adhere to a puritan form of Islam. They also underscore their their strictness and simplicity in the decoration  of their mosques and lack of high minarets. The only spectacular decoration being the Mihrab (praying niche) Several Omani mosques have spectacular praying niches dating back to the 15th / 16th century (for illustrations of beautiful Omani  Mihrabs see e.g. ref 4 page 70 and 71) These Mihrabs are similar to Miharbs in Iran dating back as early as the 9th century.

The British explorer Wellsted writes in the 1830´s that the town displayed a nice appearance from afar, with handsome houses and a palace of the Imam, which the Italian physician Maurizi had noted, had been rebuilt in a European style, see ref 6.

The exploring couple  mr. and mrs Bent visited Muscat in the 1890´s and noted that most of Muscat in now in ruins and that three walls of the big Portuguese cathedral are still standing and that the interior is used as a horse stable for the sultan.

S.M. Zwemer (see reference) in 1900 writes in his book Cradle of Islam p 204/205:  "That in 1895  there was a major uprise from tribes in the interior (he calls Bedouin)  These tribes managed to take Muscat and looted the town. The cause of the trouble was a difference as to the amount of yearly tribute a certain Sheikh Saleh of Samed should pay the Muscat ruler.   The "bedouin" came to Muscat for negotiations and Saleh received some money from the Sultan. The sultan asked the "bedouin" to camp outside the gates during the night. However part of the "bedouin"  remained inside the town and during night the gates were attacked by them.  The Sultan fled to one of the two forts after the "bedouin " entered the palace. Subsequently the sultan´s forces in the two forts opened fire with  ancient Portuguese canons and  bombarded the  "bedouin" in th Sultan´s own palace!!!  The "bedouin" took possession of the town closing the gates and posting armed men through out the bazaar and streets.  The palace was completely looted. However the parts of the town occupied by the British were left unharmed. After some time reinforcements of the Sultan arrived and major fighting broke out. During a ceasefire the British subjects were allowed to leave  Muscat and go to the town of Makalla.   Subsequently British canon boats arrived but they did not help the Sultan.... When the conflict ended the British even saddled the Sultan with a large invoice of damage done to the British! "

1. Arabia The cradle of Islam by S.M. Zwemer New York 1900 p 203-205;
2. Catalog of the Oman exhibition in the Nieuwe Kerk Amsterdam 2009 page Arabische schepen p 83 - p 94
3. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007
4. Muscat gate Museum memoirs of history p 86,87, p 88, p 89, p 41, p 42
5. Mascate by Emile Allemann in Le Tour du Monde 1901 page 74 - page 75 contains a similar panorama photo taken in 1898
6. J.R. Wellsted travels in Arabia John Murray 1838
7. Max von Oppenheim in his book vom Mittelmeer zum Perzischen Golf band II after page 330

Bayt Al Alam palace around 1890

1. Muscat gate museum memoirs of History, Allegro communications, Muscat 2001 page 40 bottom left (similar view)

Bishop French and other missionaries in Muscat

Photo of the grave of Bishop French who died May 1891 in Muscat after (apparently) getting a sunstroke when traveling from Muttrah to Muscat.  He intended to do missionary work in the interior of Oman but never managed to do so. 

The Death of Bishop French inspired two young Americans, Samuel Zwemer and James Cantine to found the Arabian Mission of the Dutch Reformed church in America. Zwemer was able to purchase a large plot of land outside the walls for the mission, and here had a station built. S.M. Zwemer (see reference)  says: "The grave of Bishop French is in the bottom of a narrow ravine circled by black rocks and reached by boat, by rounding the rocky point to the south of Muscat. Here are many graves of sailors of the Royal marine and others who died on this burning  and inhospitable coast. Here also rests the body of Rev. Stone, the American Missionary, who was called home in the summer of 1899, after a short period of service"

 In 1897 Peter Zwemers brother travelled across the very high Jebel Akhdar mountains (See References section) Unfortunately he died the next year.  

In 1908 the mission built a school and in 1913 a hospital for women. In 1909 Dr. Sharon Thoms arrived in Muttrah to set up the first medical mission in Oman, but he was killed in 1913 in an accident and also buried near to Bishop French. His son (Sharon Thoms) would much later (1939)  set up an early  hospital in the Sultanate starting with a leprosy care center outside the walls of Muttrah, he stayed in Oman for 40 years until 1970.  Dr. Donald and Mrs Eloise Bosch  came to Muscat in 1955 to join the American Mission hospital in Muttrah and played a key role in establishing the current National Health service in Oman.

1. Cradle of Islam by S.M. Zwemer Arabia:   New York 1900 page 351;
2. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007 aerial  photo 139 shows the situation 1998
3. Muscat Gate Museum Memoirs of History p 32-p 33 map showing location of the Christian cemetery.
4. S.M. Zwemer Three journeys in Northern Oman 1902 The Geographical Journal, Vol XIX
5. Throw down the anchor The story of the Muttrah souq by Maxine Burden, centre for Omani dress, Muscat Media Group page 72-77. 2014 Contains a good article about Donald and Eloise Bosch.

Fort al Jalali history

Al Jalali Fort is a fortified enclosure covering the entire mountain top with walls surrounding garrison buildings, a single watch tower, and a large gun platform overlooking the bay. The fort had a single staircase of 80 steps cut into the rock. Fort al-Jalali was built by the Portuguese around 1587 to protect the harbor after Muscat had twice been sacked by Ottoman forces. It fell to Omani forces in 1650. During the civil wars between 1718 and 1747, the fort was twice captured by Persians who had been invited to assist one of the rival Imams. The fort was extensively rebuilt later. At times, al Jalali served as a refuge or a jail for a member of the royal family. For much of the 20th century it was used as Oman's main prison, but this function ended in the 1970´s. Fort al-Jalali was restored in 1983 and converted into a museum that is accessible only to dignitaries visiting the country.

1. Muscat gate museum memoirs of History, Allegro communications, Muscat 2001 page 40 bottom left (similar view)
2. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007 aerial  photo 139 shows the situation 1998

Fort Mirani history

The Italian architect Carlos Cairate, who had previously designed Fort Jesus at Mombassa (see Zanzibar section of our website) was sent to Muscat to built Fort Mirani. The new fort was completed in 1588 by captain Belchior Calaca in 1588. At later stages new elements were added to the fort.  Sultan Qaboos added a new tower to conceal a lift to the fortress. During restoration work in the 1970´s the lower gun platform was razed in order to build a road to the new naval base in Mukalla cove. 

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007 photo 19 (Fort Jalali)

Missionary Zwemer Exploring Oman

S.M. Zwemer was a missionary of the Dutch reformed church of America. He describes three journeys in this article:

1. May 1900 he crossed from Sharka on the Persian Gulf to Shinas and Sohar via Waddi Hitta
2. Feb 1901 he travelled along the Pirate Coast from Abu Thabi to Sharka
3. May 1901 he travelled across the North of Oman from Abu Thabi to Sohar via Buraimi

1. S.M. Zwemer Three journeys in Northern Oman 1902 The Geographical Journal, Vol XIX
2. Travels in Oman , Philip Ward, The Oleander Press 1987 page 242

Postcard details

Omani lady with mask (quite rare) Subtitle printed in red.

References:

1. The traditional Women´s Dress of Oman by Julia m. Stehlin-Alzadjali, Centr eof Omani dress 2010 page 65
2. Oman's national dress for women (special supplement)  in Times of Oman in association The Zubair cooperation 17 November 2015

Postcard details

Arab woman Muscat by Fernandez.  Colored postcard.  Printed in Germany.  These cards are very rare.  The same photo was also used years later in an article in the New-York Times in 1916 (see below)

1.  New York Times mid week pictorial March 9 1916 "Masked and Jeweled women of war-girt Arabia"
2. The postcard was also used as book cover for the book: "Oman, Culture and Diplomacy" by Jones, Jeremy; Ridout, Nicholas Edinburgh University Press, 2012
3. The traditional Women´s Dress of Oman by Julia m. Stehlin-Alzadjali, Centr eof Omani dress 2010 page 65
4. Oman's national dress for women (special supplement)  in Times of Oman in association The Zubair cooperation 17 November 2015

Postcard details

Two women wearing Omani jewelry! Printed on Germany. These cards are very rare. The same photo was also used years later in an article in the New-York Times in 1916 (see below)  It was also used in the article Notes on Oman by S.M. Zwemer in 1911 (Ref 2) page 95 with the title "native women in Oman, the heavy silver anklets, ear-rings, bracelets and nose jewels are typical , as is also the peculiar veil worn over the face"

1. New York Times mid week pictorial March 9 1916 "Masked and Jeweled women of war-girt Arabia"
2. National Geographic magazine Washington Jan 1911
3. The traditional Women´s Dress of Oman by Julia m. Stehlin-Alzadjali, Centr eof Omani dress 2010 page 65
4. Oman's national dress for women (special supplement)  in Times of Oman in association The Zubair cooperation 17 November 2015

Postcard details

Baluchi woman wearing Omani jewelry! Printed on Germany. These cards are very rare. The same photo was also used years later in an article in the New-York Times in 1916 (see below) The silver "Muttrah style"  koran-box is unusual for Oman as it has a stone in the middle: For an almost identical example see ref 2

1. New York Times mid week pictorial March 9 1916 "Masked and Jeweled women of war-girt Arabia
2. Oman Adorned a portrait in silver Robert Richmond, Miranda Morris etc.  Apex Publishing Muscat & Oman page 98 illustration A : "a Muttrah-style hirz, whose style was probably influenced by merchants who originally came from Baluchistan (in present day Pakistan)"
3. The traditional Women´s Dress of Oman by Julia m. Stehlin-Alzadjali, Centr eof Omani dress 2010 page 65
4. Oman's national dress for women (special supplement)  in Times of Oman in association The Zubair cooperation 17 November 2015

Details of New York Times 1916 article

Four photos of masked Muscat women published  in March 9 1916 in  The New York Times mid-week pictorial. The texts below the pictures in the American magazine are:

• Behind the bars! Every women in Muscat is her own jailer- for modesty´s sake
• With rings on her fingers and bells on her wrists - an Arab girl of Muscat
• Masked, jeweled , and embroidered  - women of Koweit in the Northern part of Arabia (???) (comment: She wears Antal anklets)
• With armlets and anklets of gold - a Seedeboy girl of the Persian Gulf. Comment:  Seedeboy is anglo-indian slang for an African (e.g. used by Kipling) Note she is also wearing antal.anklets.

Note: Three of the pictures are taken from "A.R. Fernandes" postcards that were used in Muscat approx ten years earlier. The titles in the American magazine do not match the postcard titles... Suspect the fourth lady is also copied from a postcard we have not found yet.

Details of Muscat town-gates

On the earlier aerial photo we have seen that muscat is protected by a wall from cliff to cliff and fortified with towers.  The wall has three gates that were shut every evening three hours after sundown. The closing of the gates was announced by drum beats from fort Mirani. Anyone who wanted  to walk in the city after closure had to carry a lamp. The closing of the gates during dark continued until 1970, when Sultan Qaboos took over from his father. Size 8,5 by 13,5 cm

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007  photo 102 (situation (1966)
2. Muscat Gate Museum memoirs of History page 86-87 contains a town plan showing the location of the Bab-al-Saghir gate and its proximity to the  Muscat souq. For a photo of the Muscat souq around 1900 see page 25 and 26 top photo. 
3. Throw down the anchor The story of the Muttrah souq by Maxine Burden, centre for Omani dress, Muscat Media Group 2014 page 296-298 contains information on the Muscat souq

Details of the important article on Muscat by Alleman

This magazine is a fantastic source on Muscat and surroundings with over 20 (!)  good photo illustrations dating from 1898 and published in 1901. The large article covering several pages has been written by Emile Allemann who worked for the French navy and the fine photos have also been taken by him.  The article and photos give an excellent impression of Muscat and its surroundings at the end of the 19th century!

We have included most of the photos in the slide-show.  This magazine is not referred to in most books / reference lists on Oman. The article has also be translated into other languages e.g. in Dutch.

1. Mascate Emile Allemann Le Tour du monde Tome VII nouvelle serie 7e liv 16 Fevrier 1901.
2. Maskate Emile Allemann Dutch translation of reference 1 in De Aarde en haar Volken 1902.  page 193-204 Including some of the previous photos.
3. Muscat gate Museum memoirs of history p 25,26 contains some photos of the first reference.

S.B. Miles exploring Oman

This article describes a trip by S.B. Miles in Oman. It contains early photos of Oman including photos of Bahla Fort, Jabreen Fort, Rostaq Fort and the House of Seyyi Hamood Azzan also in Rustaq.

1. Travels in Oman , Philip Ward, The Oleander Press 1987 page 242
2. S.B. Miles On the Border of the greater desert: A journey in Oman

French article on the Muscat slave-market

French Magazine.  Page 225 has a large full page size photo-engraving of the Muscat according to the text with men and masked ladies.

Comment: It could be the main gate in Muscat but it could also be the gate into the separate quarters in Muttrah where the Lawatya lived.

Text in the article: De la tete aux pieds l´arabe examine l´esclave qu´on lui presente, comme s´il s´agissait  dún cheval et, autour de lui , chacun des assistants s´interesse au marche surtout pour savoir le prix qu´il se decidera a donner . Ignorante du sort qui ici est reserve, douce et resignee, la jeune esclave attend sa decision, prete a suivre la nouveau maitre ou il lui plaira de l´emmener, a devenir  sa chose ou celle de ses femmes.

References:

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007 photo 95, 96, 99 &100 Muscat?

Muscat postcard details:

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brilll Leiden 2007 
2. Along the Gulf from Basra to Muscat Photographs by Hermann Burchardt. By Annegret Nippa and Peter Herbstreuth. (contains a chapter on Oman)
3. Throw down the anchor The story of the Muttrah souq by Maxine Burden, centre for Omani dress, Muscat Media Group page 94- 95.

Sir Percy Cox exploring Oman

The article describes a trip in Oman by Percy Cox made 25 years earlier (around 1900) when he was the British agent in Oman. The most interesting part of the article is the fact that it contains some very early photos of Oman taken in 1900.  It includes photos of the town Tanuf , Nizwa fort and the village Beni Habib in the Jebel Akhdar.  Sir Percy Cox became chairman of the Royal Geographical Society. When Rudolph the son of princess Emily Ruete and his wife were having tea with Mrs Cox,  Sir Percy Cox had a hunting accident and died.

In the "Books & Maps" section of our website we have a spectacular book "The Persian Question"  by Lord Curzon that belonged to Sir Percy Cox including his book-plate that shows him dressed as an Arab and dressed as a traditional Englishman, so he felt himself half an Englishman and half  an Arab! Percy Cox and Gertrude Bell also played a key role in the shaping of Iraq.

1. Sir Percy Cox Some excursion in Oman 1925 Royal Geographical Society
2. Travels in Oman , Philip Ward, The Oleander Press 1987 page 291

Description:

Al Jalali Fort was built by the Portuguese in 1587 and named Forte de São João (i.e. Saint John's Fort) Its Arabic name is said to derive from the Portuguese "João".  Like the Mirani Fort at the opposite end of the bay, Al Jalali's purpose was to protect Portuguese ships against the threat of attack, particularly by the Ottomans and Persians.  The fortress stands prominently on the top of a rocky hill commanding unobstructed views over the bay and old Muscat. The fort was captured by the Omani from the Portuguese in 1649 and was used for defensive purposes thereafter.  It underwent some restorations and expansions over the years until it was turned into a prison.  It is now no longer in use, but has undergone extensive restoration in recent years.  HMS Duncan was an impressive warship (a D-class destroyer leader) built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930´s.

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007 

Details:

Photos visit HMS Duncan to Muscat in 1933: Sepoys guarding the Sultan of Oman.  The building in the back is probably the British consulate in the harbor of Muscat

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brilll Leiden 2007 

Identifying the location of the cemetary

Unknown old Arab  graveyard in Muscat Oman 1933. A pencil inscription on the back of the photo mentions it is in Muscat. It could be the Lughan quarters  cemetery in Muscat. However it it could also be one of the two mosques in Bandar Jissah, but we are not sure. 

References:

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007  Has photos of several ancient cemeteries but have not positively identified the one  the aove photo.

Postcard details

The postcard of Bait Faranza is also interesting, this was the old French consulate. See Ref 2 page 72: "Bait Faransa is located between al Bab al Kabir and the site of the old souq. According to Ian Skeet, who lived in the house in the late 19860´s, it was built sometime during the period 1820-1840 by Ghaliyah bint Salim bin Sultan. Her father was an elder brother of the famous Said bin Sultan, who ruled Oman as well as Zanzibar from 1807 to 1856. In 1896 the house was given by the Sutan Sayyid Faysal bin Turki, to the French Consul Paul Ottavi fro use as his consulate"

In 1992  Bait Faransa became the Franco Omani Museum.

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brilll Leiden 2007 
2. Muscat gate museum memoirs of History, Allegro communications, Muscat 2001 page 72
3. A French Consul in Muscat in 1905 by Xavier Beguin Billecoq Paris 1991

Details of the presents

Presents from the Sultan to the captain of the HMS Duncan 1933:

•  Muscat coffeepot Dallah  (seems Indian hand work?)
•  Khanjar

Ryam village

Antique photo of the village Ryam close to Muscat and taken  in 1936

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007  photo 161 (1900 situation) photo 162 (1950 situation)

Muttrah bay

Antique photo of Mattrah Muttrah harbor close to Muscat in Oman taken  in  1936

References:

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brilll Leiden 2007 

Details of the Royal household photo

Antique photo of the Sultan of Oman´s Royal household taken  in 1936. Note the Omani on the left carrying a photo camera! The slide-show contains a detail of this photo with the Omani photographer.

Muscat form the landside

Antique photo of Ryam Pass Muscat taken from the land-side 1936

1. Historical Muscat An illustrated Guide and Gazetteer by J.E. Peterson published by Brill Leiden 2007  photo 158 (situation 1908) Note limited  change since 1908
2. Vom Mittelmeer zum Perzischen Golf band II by Max von Oppenheim  page 328
3. Islamic Art in Oman (situation around 1950) page 12

History of Sultan Said bin Taimur:

Sultan Said bin Taimur inherited in 1932 a bankrupt and politically deeply divided country from his father Taimur bin Faisal. 

The father of Said bin Taimur  also already inherited a high public debt and widespread rebellion among the tribes in the interior.Between 1915 and 1920, the Sultan's forces were aided by British financial and material support against the rebel tribes, ensuring adequate resistance but not total victory. An uneasy situation of no war, no peace, existed, with the sultan controlling Muscat and the coastal towns and the Imam ruling the interior. This was tacitly codified in the Treaty of Seeb in 1920, brokered by the British political agent in Muscat. The treaty was between the sultan and the tribes, represented by Sheikh Isa bin Salih al Harthi, leader of the Al Harthi tribe. In return for partial autonomy (on local affairs), the tribes in the interior pledged to cease attacking the coast.  The Sultan would also make some annual payments to the tribes. The Treaty of Seeb was, de facto, a partition agreement between Muscat and Oman (i.e. coastal areas and the interior) serving Britain's interest in preserving its power through the office of the sultan without having to dispatch British troops to the region ( divide and rule).

From 1800 the Sultan of Oman also had to pay "protection" fees to the Saudi's to prevent violent attacks on Oman from their Wahabi  tribes.

During the 19th and early 20th century the major interest of the British in the coast of south Arabia and the East African coast was to protect the economically crucial shipping lanes between India and Britain (i.e. avoid piracy and unrest) This became even more important after the opening of the Suez canal.

By the 1950's the Americans had secured energy sources (oil) and political influence in Saudi Arabia, Iran and most other key places in the Middle East while British influence in that region had largely diminished.  The British were afraid to completely loose direct access to oil and influence in the Middle East. Also the influence of the cold war with Russia was felt in the Middle East during that period.

In 1955 drilling started in Oman at Fahud and this looked very promising. Because of the possibility of oil deposits in Oman the Saudi's started in 1955 disputing the border between Saudi Arabia and Oman and claimed the border town of Buraimi. The Buraimi Dispute was eventually taken to the United Nations, to avoid a military conflict. It was decided that the town was Omani, this decision  was also simplified by the fact that Saudi had tried to bribe officials with suitcases of money...

From 1955 the the Saudi's trickered a revolt  in Nizwa and the Jebel Akhdar region of Oman. With help of the British army the rebellion was quickly contained.  However a few hundred fanatic rebels remained active in the Jebel Akhdar mountains and plains. In 1959 a combined land and air offensive ended the rebellion.

Since the 1920 Seeb treaty, Muscat and its interior (Oman) had been  largely separate but in 1959 Sultan Taimur reunited the country. The well written book "Sultan in Oman" by Jan Morris (ref 1)  gives a wonderful insight in the first part of the Jebel Akhdar campaign. It would take until 1970 for Sultan Qaboos to change the country's name form "Muscat and Oman" to its original name Oman.

The limited income of the Sultan of Oman was the Zakat (an Islamic tax on certain products), some customs taxes and some subsidies / loans from Britain. Sultan Taimur. managed his budget very closely.

The initial expectations of oil production at Fahud turned out to be too optimistic and proper oil production in Oman only started in 1967 When the financial situation and opportunities for Oman dramatically improved the old Sultan  stuck to his old conservative policies, thereby obstructing the progress of the country resulting in discontent and an uprising in the country.  In 1970 Sultan Taimur was peacefully removed from power by his son Qaboos with the help of the British.  In 1970 Oman was one of the few countries in the world without National Debt.

Conclusion: The 1920 treaty of Seeb ensured political peace between Muscat and Oman that lasted until the 1950s, when oil exploration in the interior reintroduced conflict (insticated by the Saudi's). In return for accepting a truncation of his authority, the sultan received in 1920 a loan from the British government with an amortization period of ten years, sufficient to repay his debts to merchants. When Sultan Taimur ibn Faisal abdicated for financial reasons in 1932, the twenty-two-year-old Said ibn Taimur inherited an administration that was again deeply in debt and totally dependent on the British government. The previous also explains why until 1970 the name of Oman was "Muscat and Oman" and also why Sultan Said bin Taimur was so reluctant to loosen financial controls when the oil income started in 1967. If the British had not intervened in 1950's, Oman or large parts of it may have been taken over by Saudi Arabia.

References:

1. James Morris Sultan in Oman Pantheon Books New York 1957.
2. Wendell Philips Oman a History 1971 Librarie du Liban Beirut page 174-175:  In 1949 Saudi Arabia issued a proclamation defining its territorial waters and asserting claims to mineral rights in the adjecent high seas of the Persian Gulf. (...)   The British believed that all this was fathered by ARAMCO to enlarge its concession area whether true or not, Aramco took over a great deal of the preparation of the evidence and legal arguments in support of the Saudi's claim. Aramco also provided the Saudi Government with services of its Research Division. In 1952 this research department was responsible for two truly remarkable publications. i) on page 75 of The Arabia if Ibn Saud it says "The Eastern most area often inaccurately called Oman, is made up of the long narrow , coastal Sultanate of Muscat; mountainous Oman proper (independent); a tribal region around Buraimi. This easternmost area which Aramco says is inaccurately called Oman has been inaccurately called Oman for over a thousand years before the birth of Saudi Arabia; The long narrow coastal Sultanate of Muscat is non existent. Aramco's second effort from that year, entitled Oman and the Southern Shore of the Persian Gulf was published for the Saudi Arabian Government in Cairo.. This publication postulates the existence of a separate independent, and well defined Imamate of Oman, inclduing Sharqiyah province, Jabal Akhdar and the western slopes of the Hajar mountains in the interior of the country. This supported state was purported to exist as an Ibadhi State wholly divorced from the Sultan's rule, something which the Arab league in Cairo has not yet accepted. To say the least, this volume hardly qualifies as an innocuous work of disinterested scholarship. Page ix of the preface states: The information contained herein will be of value to those who are actively engaged in the endeavour to settle boundary problems that now exist;
3. Oman and the Southern Shore of the Persian Gulf by Arabian American Oil Company (ARAMCO) 1952 Cairo
   

Description:

Omani officials  and a young Omani boy / prince  visiting the warship. !

References:

1. Oman's national dress for man (special supplement)  in Times of Oman in association The Zubair cooperation 16 November 2015

References:

1. Oman's national dress for man (special supplement)  in Times of Oman in association The Zubair Cooperation 16 November 2015

The British consulate in Muscat

Picture of the British Consulate Embassy. On the right of the consulate we see the Customs House which was built by the Portuguese around 1625 with in front the customs quay. To disembark with small boats onto the crumbling customs jetty was very difficult. In this region without hotels or public guest-houses, the consulates took care of travelers from Europe.  Occasionally the local sheik or Sultan invites visitors to stay.

1. Muscat Gate Museum Memoirs of history Page 42, Page 40 (photo bottom left) Page 86 (town-plan of Muscat with names of key buildings)